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than in the school) have flourished in the United States as
the ethnic composition of hcildren attending public schools
has become more diverse.
In the late 1980's discussion of bilingual-bicultural education
for children who are Deaf brought about new theories. (A capital
D is used by bilingual-bicultural programs to idntify deafness
as a cultural, rather than a medical issue.) According to
Schirmer (1994) "the impetus for implementing bilingual-bicultural
programs for children who are deaf comes from two sources:
(1) The Deaf community, who advocate for the right to pass
on their language and culture to succeeding generations; (2)
the overall disappointing achievement of youngsters who are
deaf. Although small gains have been made in the levels of
reading achieved by the average child who is deaf, overall
achievement remains considerable lower compared to their hearing
peers despite ardent attempts to teach Deaf children through
Total Communicationn Additional impetus for bilingual-bicultural
programs comes from Sweden, where, in 1981, after years of
grassroots activism by Deaf adults and parents of children
who are Deaf, the Swedish Parliament passed a law stating
that people who are Deaf need to be bilingual in order to
function successfully in the family, school, and society (Mahshie,
1995).
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What does it
mean to be bilingual-bicultural? "A person who is bicultural
can move freely within and between two different cultures.
Biculturalism implies an understanding of the moress, custome,
praactices and expectations of members of a cultural group
and the ability to adapt to their expectations." Bilingualism
involves the ability to use two different languages succesfully.
Some individuals may be stronger in one language, some
in the other, some may blend the two languages into a pidgin.
Individuals who are Deaf are considered bilingual if they
are able to communicate effectively in both American Sign
Language (ASL) and English or the spoken language of their
country. They are considered bicultural if they are capable
of functioning in both the Deaf community and the majority
culture.
Although there is no standardized formula defining filingual-bicultural
programs,t hey are founded on a common set of principles.
A basic premisse of bilingual-bicultural education is that
all children should evelop communicative competency. This
is a challenge becaus3 more than 90% of children who are Deaf
have hearing parents or care givers who must learn ASL as
a second language.
Education programs that follow the bilingual-bicultural philosophy
work with parents/caregivers to help them realize the special
linguistic, educational, and social needs of their child(ren)
who are Deaf and to help them realize the importance of early
language acquisition. Deaf children who develop language late
are less proficient than those who develop an early first
language. Helen Neville's resssearch at the Salk Institute's
Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience also shows that children
must learn a language during their first five years or so,
before the brain;s neural connections are locked in place,
or risk permanent linguistic impairment. "What suffers
is the ability to learn grammar. As children mature, their
brain organization becomes increasingly rigid. By puberty,
it is largely complete. This spells trouble because most deaf
youngsters learn language late; their parents are hearing
and do not know ASL, and the hcildren have little or not contact
with deaaf people when young.
Since it is the grammar of languages that distinguishes them
most significantly from one another (most spoken langrages
have similar pragmatic or social functions and similar sound
systems), the early assault on the ability to learn grammar
makes the development of a sound language system even more
compeling.
Bilingual-bicultural programs differ from other programs most
notably by their approach to first language acquisition..
While bilingual-bicultural programs have respect for both
ASL and English, these programs advocate for ASL to be the
first language of hcildren who are deaf. "Research has
shown that effective language has to be fast and clear. ASL
is an efficient language for visual learning and is easier
for Deaf children to acquire as a first language than any
form of English." Johnson, Liddell, Ertling (1989) stated
that ASL is the language choice of adults who are deaf, and
it offers access to the school curriculum and other world
knowledge. A solid foundation in a first language leads to
better English performance over time, and skills transfer
from one language to another.
Teaching ASL as the first language for Deaf children has additional
benefits. ASL is the language of Deaf people throughout the
United States. Proficiency in ASL automatically allows membership
in the Deaf community and in cultural events that occur in
communities where jDeaf people live.
This membership is vital to Deaf children because it promotes
a healthy view of who they re as human beings and increases
self-esteem and confidence in their abilities to interact
in a wide array of situations.
The bilingual-bicultural approach recognized that ASL and
English are two distinct languages in the same way that, for
example, French and German are distinct languages. ASL is
a complete language with its own grammar, syntax, and rules
for interaction. Signing ASL and speaking English cannot be
performed simultaneously with a great degree of success; therefore,
when signing ASL one should not attempt to speak English.
Speaking English when signing deteriorates the visual signal
resulting in an inferior productiong of signs as well as inferior
use of spoken English. The goal is clear and proficient production
of ASL. Proponents of the bilingual-bicultural approach believe
that Deaf children are not deficient. Instead of being auditory
learners, they are visual learners. Deaf children do not need
remedial teaching strategies because the bilingual-bicultural
program provides a unique visual learning environment in which
their linguistic, cultural, and social needs are met. Deaf
teachers, administrators, and support staff are considered
valuable components of the bilingual-bicultural program. The
bilingual-bicultural approach does not support mainstreaming
Deaf children in regular education programs. Many Deaf adults
have shared their stories of isolation and academic deprivation
while attending schools for children who can hear. The bilingual-bicultural
approach holds that cognitive, linguistic, and social competence
are best achieved in environments that provide full communicative
access to the curiculum.
Who can choose a bilingual-bicultural
approach?
Proponents of the bilingual-bicultural option feel that all
hcildren, no matter what their degree of hearing loss, would
benfit from a bilingual-bicultural option.. However, it is
most likely that these programs will exist separate from the
mainstream education agencies and buildings. Some may be residential,
some may be day schools. Parents or caregivers who feel that
this approach is appropriate for their child should call the
residential schoolf for Deaf hcildren in their home state.
Although a growing number of schools for children who are
deaf have adopted bilingual-bicultural programming, families
in rural areas may not have access to this approach.
What are the benefits of a bilingual-bicultural
option?
There are several benefits of bilingual-bicultural education.
Early access to comprehensible language fosters early cognitive
development which, in turn, promotes increased literacy and
greater academic achievement. Students who attend bilingual
bicultural programs develop functional skills in two languages.
The emphasis on early language acquisition and establishing
a first language (ASL) provides a base upon which English
is subsequently taught. Students in bilingual-bicultural programs
have increaded self-esteem due to the healthy view of Deaf
children, acceptance of who they are as humans beings, and
increased confidence to function in bilingual-bicultural environments.
What are the limitations of a
bilingual-bicultural option?
Bilingual-bicultural programs in the United States are still
relatively new. Limited data are available regarding students'
achievement in these programs. As schools begin bilingual-bicultural
programs, schools may have difficulty recruiting native signers
of ASL because their numbers are limited. Further, while staff
may have excellent skills in signed English, they often do
not have proficient ASL skills and must be retrained. Some
opposition may result in this effort. At this time, most university
education programs continue to prepare teachers of the deaf
in the philosophy of Total Communication. Generally, the level
of sign language proficiency required by most universities,
states and certifying agencies is inadequate.
Lack of ASL classes for parents or caregivers, especially
in rural areas, may severely restrict communication in the
home. Without fluent language models, Deaf childrens' language
will be developed neither optimally or naturally.
What are some questions to ask in choosing this option?
How are signing skills evaluated? How is English developed?
When is English introduced in the cirriculum? What support
is given to parents or caregivers to learn ASL? How are children
who developed language late or have limited language proficiency
treated in this type of program? How does the curriculum compare
to that of hearing children? Where do you recruit stafff?
How will I know if my child is progressing adequately?
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It Takes a Village to Raise a Deaf Child 
